Regulations

• The Drinking Water Inspectorate (DWI) is an independent drinking water quality regulator, responsible for overseeing the quality of drinking water in England and Wales, ensuring that water companies comply with regulations. DWI monitors water quality, inspects companies, and has the authority to require improvements to ensure water safety and standards, holding companies accountable for public health. In Scotland, the Drinking Water Quality Regulator (DWQR) is responsible for holding Scottish Water accountable, while in Northern Ireland, the Drinking Water Inspectorate is part of the Northern Ireland Environment Agency and oversees Northern Ireland Water.
• The Department for Environment, Food, and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) sets the overall water and sewage policy framework in England, including legislation, standards and special permits, while the Welsh Government performs this role in Wales. DEFRA also establishes strategic objectives for regulators like Ofwat, the Environment Agency, and the DWI, ensuring they operate within the government’s policy priorities, while maintaining their regulatory independence.
• The Consumer Council for Water (CCW) is a body that represents consumers in the water and sewerage sector, handling complaints, advocating for customer rights, and ensuring consumer interests are considered in industry decisions. While not a regulator, CCW works closely with Ofwat, holding companies accountable and providing input on issues and Ofwat’s charging rules.
• Market operator (MOSL) is a central body that oversees the non-household water retail market in England, allowing business customers to choose their water and wastewater service providers. With access to central market data, MOSL processes transactions through the Central Market Operating System (CMOS) and is responsible for delivering the essential IT systems that facilitate registration, customer switching, and settlement between wholesalers and retailers. The Central Market Agency (CMA) is the equivalent body, owned and managed by market participants operating in the Scottish market. It oversees the retail market by managing supplier switching and financial settlements between retail licences and Scottish Water.

History

UK water and sewerage sectors have undergone significant transformation in the past several decades. Originally fragmented, with over a thousand local authorities and private companies providing water and sewerage services independently, the industry evolved to a more consolidated structure. Initially, each region managed its own resources, leading to inconsistent service levels across the country. Post-World War II legislation aimed to unify these services, introduce regional planning, and enhance investment. The Water Resources Act of 1963 marked a key shift, establishing a coordinated approach to water resource planning and implementing groundwater abstraction permits to conserve resources. Further restructuring in the late 1960s and early 1970s addressed continued challenges in planning for future water demand.

The Water Act 1973 established ten regional water authorities in the UK, consolidating local water and sewerage services under a regional, integrated structure based on river catchment areas. These authorities took over services previously managed by local councils and operated on a cost-recovery model, with funding through government loans and service revenue. While this structure improved some aspects of service, challenges remained. The authorities faced financial constraints, struggled to invest in infrastructure, and had dual responsibilities for both managing discharges and monitoring environmental standards, including their own. Additionally, rising environmental expectations and stricter European regulations demanded higher standards within the industry.

In response to investment challenges, the Water Act 1983 introduced reforms that reduced local government influence, allowed regional water authorities to access private capital markets, and made constitutional adjustments. However, pollution incidents persisted, and limited public funding led to a decision to privatise the water authorities. The Water Act 1989 enacted this change, transferring water and sewerage services to private companies and separating service provision from regulatory oversight. Privatisation included floating the companies on the London Stock Exchange, a public capital injection, debt write-offs, and tax allowances. This restructuring aimed to protect customers and the environment by establishing independent regulation alongside privatised service providers.

The Water Industry Act 1991 established three independent regulators to oversee the privatised water sector: the Drinking Water Inspectorate (regulating drinking water quality), the National Rivers Authority (environmental regulation), and the Director General of Water Services, supported by Ofwat, as the economic regulator. These bodies also monitored statutory private water companies. In 1996, the National Rivers Authority’s responsibilities were absorbed by the Environment Agency, and in 2006, the Water Services Regulation Authority, still known as Ofwat, replaced the Director General of Water Services to continue economic regulation of the industry.

Today, water supply is delivered by private water companies in England and Wales. In Scotland and Northern Ireland, publicly owned water companies are responsible for the water supply. Most water and sewerage companies are regional monopolies, with dedicated infrastructure in each company’s area. Retail competition is allowed for businesses customers, while household customers cannot switch their retailer and that competition is limited.

Regulatory framework

The water and sewerage sectors in England and Wales operate under a comprehensive legislative framework that covers areas like economic regulation, water and sewerage services, water quality and environmental standards. Some of the most important laws, sorted by years, include:

• The Water Act 1989 – initiated the privatisation of the water industry in England and Wales, where publicly owned water authorities were converted into private companies, each granted regional monopolies for water and sewerage services. It also introduced a framework for economic, environmental, and drinking water quality regulation, which aimed to ensure that those companies operated in the public interest.
• Water Industry Act 1991 – established the powers and responsibilities of water and sewerage companies, regarding supply, wastewater treatment and environmental protection. It also established the regulations for quality, service and pricing, as well as the regulatory role of the Director General of Water Services (later Ofwat).
• Water Resources Act 1991 – introduced water quality classifications and objectives, as well as the functions of the National Rivers Authority (later Environment Agency).
• Competition and Service (Utilities) Act 1992 – expanded Ofwat’s powers for disputes and increased industry opportunities for competition.
• Environment Act 1995 – created the Environment Agency, prompted the restructuring of the environmental regulation and required companies to encourage efficient water use among customers.
• Competition Act 1998 – prevented anti-competitive practices and monopolistic behaviour, with oversight shared by Ofwat and the Competition and Markets Authority (CMA).
• Water Industry Act 1999 – amended the Water Industry Act 1991 to prevent disconnection of domestic customers for non-payment, limit conditions for metered billing, and maintain rateable value-based charging options.
• Enterprise Act 2002 – amended existing legislation to ensure that certain mergers are referred to the Competition Commission (later Competition and Markets Authority CMA), promoting fair competition.
• Water Act 2003 – Adjusted abstraction licensing, revised economic regulatory structures, and allowed competition for large water users.
• Flood and Water Management Act 2010 – Promoted sustainable urban drainage systems, updated drought restrictions, and supported lower tariffs for specific customer groups.
• Water Act 2014 – Allowed competition for non-household customers, empowering eligible businesses, charities, and public sector bodies to select their water retailer from 2017, enhancing efficiency and service quality in the market. Additionally, it strengthened the regulatory powers of Ofwat and included measures for sustainable water resource management, flood insurance, and enhanced infrastructure planning.

Majority of UK’s recent environmental legislation has its origins in European Union (EU) directives, which set required environmental outcomes but allow each member state flexibility in implementation. Key directives impacting the UK water and sewerage sectors include the Water Framework Directive, Urban Wastewater Treatment Directive, Marine Strategy Framework Directive, Floods Directive, Drinking Water Directive, Bathing Water Directive, and Sewage Sludge Directive, all of which take precedence over national laws.